Monument record 1473/0/2 - Lindow Man (Lindow II) Bog Body, Lindow Moss

<1> Stead I M et al, 1986, Lindow Man - The Body in the Bog (Monograph). SCH1932.

Monograph describing the discovery, excavation, conservation and study of Lindow Man.
The body was first discovered in August 1984 when part of a leg and foot was found on the elevator at peat processing depot; the remainder of the body was located in situ on site. The area of peat containing the remains was cut into a block and, following the due process of the coroner, the block of peat was transferred to the British Museum. At the Middlesex Hospital, the need to give the body a name whilst producing x-rays, led it to be called 'Pete Marsh'. As part of the excavation and conservation of the body, detailed photogrammetric recording was undertaken to record the body photographically and in 3D.
The excavation revealed a man, about 25 yrs old, 5ft 7ins high, of robust frame and bearded. He was naked except for a fox band round the left arm. A violent sequence of events led to his death, begun by blows to the head, then garrotting by a twisted animal sinew and finally cutting his throat. Analysis of the contents of his stomach and small intestine revealed cereal pollen and associated weed floras, indicating that his last meal was a coarse wheat and barley bread, probably unlevened and cooked on a griddle. Also within the gut were mistletoe pollen grains and the eggs of whip and round worms.
The circumstances of Lindow Man's death have suggested a ritual or sacrificial killing in the Celtic tradition. He suffered what could be considered a triple or threefold death, a death for each of the three powerful Celtic gods. The presence of mistletoe pollen in his gut may be of significance as it was a plant considered to have medicinal and magical properties and was revered by the Druidic priesthood. Also, the previous find of the Lindow I head could relate to the Celtic cult of the head.
Dating of the body was problematic. Radio-carbon dating of the peat on which the body lay indicated a mid Iron Age date, however, radio-carbon dating of the body itself gave later dates. Three samples processed by the Oxford laboratory dated the body to 1960+/-60 (155 BC-215 AD). Dating of a further six samples by Harwell gave a mean date of 1575+/-30 (410-560 AD). In 1986, Stead tentatively concluded that he met his death around 300BC, the date of the peat on which he lay.
Investigation of peat samples taken from around the body detected the presence of five insect families, along with some mites and two spiders. Some twenty taxa of Coleoptera (beetle) were present indicating an environment of pools and vegetation liking damp conditions. However, few, if any, appear to be present because of decomposition of the corpse, which implies it was rapidly submerged. Similarly, the species Diptera (true flies) were poorly represented in the samples again indicating that the body was submerged after death.
The pollen-analytical and associated evidence shows that formation of the peat within which the body lay coincides with the beginning of a major phase of forest disturbance, burning, and occupation for farming. Cereals were cultivated, including wheat, oats. Non-mire pollen concentrations decline during this period likely indicating the effect of forest clearance on pollen supply.
The analysis of macrofossil plant remains from two peat monoliths indicated that for several decades before Lindow Man was put on the bog, the surface wetness conditions were 'spongy', with a water table a few centimeters below the surface. However, for a short time before his death and for some decades after, the surface of the bog became distinctly wetter with widespread pools full of aquatic bog mosses. This indicates there was a change to a wetter and/or cooler climate. At the time of his death, the bog would have been very difficult to walk upon.

<2> Stead I M & Turner R C, 1985, Lindow Man, Antiquity, Vol 59, p.25-9 (Article in Journal). SCH9739.

Further account of discovery of Lindow Man.

<3> County Historic Environment Record, 1973-1985, Cheshire Archaeological Bulletin, Vol 10, p.28-32, 'Lindow Man', Turner R C 1985 (Journal/Periodical). SCH565.

The discovery of 'Lindow Man' followed the discovery of a head in a peat stack in a peat depot, some 14 months earlier, of what was thought to be a woman age 30-50 (Lindow I, CHER 1473/0/1). Carbon dating of the head produced a date of circa 2nd century AD.

<4> Lancashire & Cheshire Antiquarian Society, 1883 -, Transactions of the Lancashire & Cheshire Antiquarian Society, Vol 84, p.1-14, 1987, I.M.Stead & R.C.Turner, 'Lindow Man: An Ancient Body from a Cheshire Bog' (Journal/Periodical). SCH3293.

Further account of discovery of Lindow Man.

<5> Royal Anthropological Institute, Various, Anthropology Today, 1,5, p. 15-17 Connolly R C 1985 (Journal/Periodical). SCH282.

Theory that Lindow Man was mugged.

<6> Royal Anthropological Institute, Various, Anthropology Today, 2,1, p. 15-18, Parker-Pearson M, 1986 (Journal/Periodical). SCH282.

<7> J.A.J. Gowlett, R.E.M. Hedges, LA. Law, 1989, Radiocarbon accelerator AMS dating of Lindow Man, Antiquity, Vol 63, p.71-9, 1989 (Article in Journal). SCH9738.

Article presenting and discussing the Oxford AMS radiocarbon dates produced for Lindow Man and the peat horizon in which he was found. In addition to the 3 dates produced in 1986 from skin samples (OxA-531, OxA-064, OxA-065), additional dates were derived from further samples (OxA 781-790, vertebrae series; OxA 1040-1, stomach contents), giving, together a mean date of 1940+/-25 BP. Also discusses radiocarbon dates produced for the body and the peat by other laboratories (Harwell, British Museum). It concludes that the body dates to the period 2nd century BC – 119 AD (Oxford dates) and the peat to 200-760 BC (Oxford, Harwell and British Museum).

<8> Cheshire County Council, 1992-1995, Cheshire Past, Issue 2, 1993, p.10-11, Turner, R., The Lindow Moss bog bodies: further research (Newsletter). SCH870.

Considers progress of research into the bog body known as Lindow III (found 1987), Lindow Man (found 1984), and Lindow I (found 1983), also Lindow IV (found 1988). The various body parts are now thought to represent two individuals, one formed by the remains of Lindow II and IV; the other Lindow I and III. Both were young adult males who appear to have met a violent end. There is evidence that the body of Lindow III was painted in a blue, clay-based, copper paint and subsequent analysis of Lindow Man found a similar group of chemicals in his skin; this could indicate that both individuals were Celtic warriors. The fact that the fingernails of both bodies were well rounded and showed no evidence of manual work may support this theory. Insect assemblages from both bodies showed no evidence for carrion fauna suggesting that they were rapidly submerged in the peat. The bodies were preserved by a tanning agent produced by the decaying sphagnum moss. The most likely dates for Lindow Man is the 1st century AD, and for Lindow III, the 2nd century AD. The article also considers the Lindow Moss finds in relation to other bog bodies from Britain and northern Europe, some of which are thought to be the victims of ritual sacrifice.

<9> Carver, M, 1993, In Search of Cultural Archaeology Investigations in Honour of P. Rahtz, p.9-18, 'Lindow Man and other British bog bodies', R.Turner (Book). SCH1467.

Article discussing discovery of the Lindow II and III bog bodies and their problematic dating with the discrepancy of their stratigraphic position in the peat and the radio-carbon dates. Lindow Man and Lindow III were located in a similar stratigraphic position in the peat, this was dated to the 3rd century BC, the middle Iron Age. For Lindow Man, the original calibrated carbon 14 dates from Oxford gave dates around the 1st century AD, whereas those from the Harwell laboratory gave dates in the early Dark Ages. Additional dates produced by Oxford in 1989 corroborated the broadly 1st century AD date; the Oxford dates are thought to be the more accurate. Discusses theories to explain how the later bodies came to lie on the earlier peat surface.

<10> Turner R. C. & Scaife R. G. A (eds), 1995, Bog Bodies. New Discoveries and New Perspectives (Book). SCH4324.

Mongraph pulling together the various strands of research undertaken as part of the Lindow bog bodies phenomenon. It is now generally accepted that the calibrated radiocarbon date range for Lindow II is 2BC to 119AD and Lindow III AD 25-230. In both cases, there is considerable similarity between the faunas found on and surrounding the bodies, significantly no evidence was found for fauna of decomposition, indicating that the bodies were rapidly submerged. Two theories presented to explain why the bodies lay on peat dating to the mid-Iron Age include that the bodies were pushed into bog pools with basal deposits dating to the mid-Iron Age. Another that the felted pool peat was cut and rolled back with the body then inserted and covered by the peat mat.
The dates of the Lindow bodies place them in the early Roman period, the time of the Roman conquest of the north-west of England. At this time, the Lindow area was under Brigantian control. Whilst the Roman invasion completely changed the political organisation of the region, the basic pattern of life probably largely continued, with a pattern of dispersed settlements or farmsteads. The Lindow bodies could be interpreted as ritual sacrificial killings, with Lindow II suffering a triple death (blow to head, garrotting and slit throat); triplism is a common Celtic religious symbol and also could allude to the three Celtic gods: Esus, Taranis and Teutates. Lindow III was potentially be-headed in the context of the Celtic cult of the head. Peat bogs were important for providing a range of resources to supplement those from dryland such as bog iron, fuel, pine trunks retrieved from the bog and cut into spills provided lighting, a variety of animal and plant food stuffs. They could be treacherous places, but also mysterious, with phenomena such as 'will-o'-the-wisp' caused by methane escaping from decaying peat which can ignite causing flames.

<11> Council for British Archaeology, Various, British Archaeological News, Nov 1994, 'Stomach bug found I Lindow Man's gut' (Newsletter). SCH9537.

The DNA of bacteria, Eschericia coli (E coli), was isolated from faecal remains in Lindow Man's bowel, showing that other bacteria could also survive. Isolation of bacterial DNA provides the an understanding of ancient diseases which make no impact on bone.

<12> Manchester Museum, 1987, 'Lindow Man: The Discovery in the Moss' (Exhibition): Teachers' Pack (Other Interpretation Materials). SCH9542.

Teachers' resource produced as part of the 1987 exhibition of Lindow Man in 1987.

<13> Manchester Museum, 1991, Lindow Man: A Guide to the Exhibition (Booklet-Leaflet). SCH9080.

Exhibition investigating Lindow Man in the context of Celtic religion, including ritual sacrifice, the sanctity of water and the cult of the head.

<14> Various, Newspaper articles relating to the discovery of the Lindow bog bodies (Newspaper-Magazine). SCH9544.

<15> Leah, MD; Wells, CE; Appleby, C; Huckerby, E, 1997, The Wetlands of Cheshire (North West Wetlands Survey 4), p.48-9 (Monograph). SCH3260.

Monograph synthesising archaeological and paleoecological studies undertaken on and around the wetlands of Cheshire, including Lindow Moss. Discusses the discovery of the Lindow bog bodies and the investigations on the two near by sand islands, which project into the western fringes of the moss, that occurred following the find of Lindow III. The raised islands were considered good candidates to find evidence of activity contemporary with the bodies.
(see ECH6985 for the 1987 excavations on the sand islands)

<16> Various, Written Communication to the HER, 22/02/2024 (Written Communication). SCH3756.

There are two NGR's recorded for Lindow II, one was generated from the NGR originally recorded in the SMR in the 1980s, SJ 8202 8057 (source 17). The other, SJ 8205 8056, is based on the rectification of a plan of the 1987 trenches (trenches 1-3), which also included the findspots of Lindow I, II and III and an approximate extent of the sand islands. (The trench plan is published in 'Bog Bodies. New Discoveries and New Perspectives', 1995, Turner and Scaife, Fig.5, p.15. SCH4324). It is important to note that only Lindow II was found in situ, the findspots of Lindows I, III and IV are subjective to a degree.

<17> Cheshire Historic Environment Record, 1980s/90s, SMR printout, CHER 1473_0_2 Lindow II, 24/03/1987 (Other Interpretation Materials). SCH9511.

<18> Hyde, Matthew and Pemberton, Christine, 2002, Lindow and the Bog Warriors, p.21-39 (Book). SCH9548.

<19> Velson Horie, 2019, Part II: Excavation and conservation of bog bodies: Resurrecting Lindow Man, Journal of Wetland Archaeology, Vol.19, Issue 1-2, 2019, Bog Bodies Special Edition (Article in Journal). SCH9549.

First-hand account, by the conservator from Manchester Museum involved, of the discovery and excavation of four sets of human remains (Lindow I-IV) from Lindow Moss in the years 1983–1988.

<20> Henry Chapman, 2015, The Landscape Archaeology of Bog Bodies, Journal of Wetland Archaeology, Vol 15, 2015 - Issue 1, p.109-121 (Article in Journal). SCH9751.

A landscape archaeology approach to the study of bog bodies by presenting newly modelled data relating to the spatial positioning of those discovered from Lindow Moss, Cheshire, England. It is argued that, by exploring the spatial positioning of the body within its contemporaneous landscape setting, it is possible to enrich previous approaches to their interpretation and to improve our understanding of the cultural context of the death of these individuals and the decisions surrounding their deposition within bogs.

<21> Don Brothwell, 1986, The Bog Man and the Archaeology of People (Book). SCH9771.

Account of discovery and forensic study of Lindow Man by Don Brothwell, biological adviser during the project, and part of the multi-disciplinary team of specialists at the British Museum investigating the body.